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International Online Training Program On Intractable Conflict |
Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, USA |
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Often parties are so committed to a single position, that they fail to consider why they are holding that position, and whether it really will get them what they want. . For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Many intractable conflicts involve the inability of one or more groups to secure their fundamental human needs--for such things as identity, security, dignity, or control. Often, however, the importance of these needs is overlooked, and conflicts are defined in material terms only. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Often, one party will define a conflict in terms of negotiable interests (that is, material things that can be traded, such as wealth or land), while another defines the conflict in terms of rights, values, or needs (all of which are intangible things that are not usually considered negotiable). While such disagreements do not make resolution completely impossible, they do make it harder to obtain. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
People often approach disputes in a very competitive, win-lose way. They assume that the only way they can win is if the other side loses. Consequently, they are very competitive, seeking the best possible outcome for themselves, without considering how this will affect people on the other side. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Sometimes, disputants seem to want their opponent to disappear forever, as if they could just be pushed "into the sea". This kind of framing can lead to genocide or to efforts to force opponents into exile. In less extreme situations, one side to a conflict may demand concessions that their opponent cannot possibly accept. When conflicts are approached in this way, protracted confrontation becomes inevitable. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Violent, catastrophic confrontations seldom occur unless the contending parties have de- humanized one another. Once this de-humanization occurs, opponents are seen to have almost no legitimate rights and all manners of atrocities are justifiable. The Geneva conventions limit this effect somewhat by setting minimal standards for the treatment of combatants. However, history has shown many examples of horrific treatment of civilians both within and outside the context of war. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Conflicts often arise when one person or group seeks to change the behavior of another, but the other does not acknowledge that a problem exists, and maintains that it is not their responsibility to deal with the problem or participate in any efforts to resolve the issue. . For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
{OLD TITLE Framing Conflict as Abnormal and Bad}Often people assume that any conflict is abnormal and bad. However, conflict is a normal and unavoidable part of all relationships and societies. It is even essential for the healthy functioning of a relationship or social group, because conflict allows people to grow and change, adapting to new situations and inventing new approaches to problems. What is bad (though also not abnormal) is the destructive ways people commonly deal with conflicts ways that worsen the problems associated with conflict and reduce the benefits the conflict could potentially bring. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Often people who are confused about what the conflict is really about or what is important to them will have ambiguous (that is, confused) goals. This often results in ineffective actions which confuse or even enrage the other side, often needlessly. The same thing can occur with third parties to enter a conflict to "help." If they do not understand what their own goals are for involvement, they can easily do more harm than good. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Failing to identify all of the affected or potentially affected people or groups In complex conflicts involving multiple people and groups it is easy to overlook some people who are likely to be affected by the conflict situation or the outcome. If a "solution" is reached which ignores these groups' interests or harms them significantly, these "quiet" or hidden groups are likely to emerge and block the agreement. * For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
In addition to failing to identify people or groups who might be involved in a conflict, disputants can also overlook issues which are important to others, but are not important to themselves. Often people will not realize that there is more than one way to see a situation, and that other people or groups may see the conflict differently than they do. . For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Often conflicts involve different definitions of justice. What seems "just" or "fair" to one group very often seems unjust to an opposing group. Often the prevailing definition of justice is set by the group in power, while low- power groups see their inferior position as unjust. * For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Sometimes people think that the situation they are involved in is new or unique, when it is actually part of a conflict or the reappearance of a conflict that has been going on for a long time. Understanding the importance of the way the conflict was handled in the past is key to being able to confront it effectively in the present. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Sometimes conflicts do not stand alone, but are related to other political, economic, social, or cultural situations. Disputants must be aware of the importance of related conflicts if they are to be able to confront their own conflict constructively. .* For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
When conflicts are complex--involving a large number of disputants and/or issues-- parties must be able to gather a great deal of information before they can plan an effective confrontation strategy. Often time or resource limitations prevent adequate information gathering. In other circumstances, information is collected, but it is interpreted incorrectly. In either case, the result is likely to inhibit effective action. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
ADD MISSING SECTION!!!! For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Often, communication difficulties arise because people think they know all they need to know about their opponents and that further communication is unnecessary. Yet images of opponents tend to be overly hostile and exaggerated. Opponents are seen to be more extreme and outrageous than they really are. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Effective communication regarding difficult and emotional issues is a time-consuming task. Often people don't take the time, choosing instead to act on rumor, stereotypes and assumptions. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Gathering the information needed to sensibly deal with conflict situations is also time- consuming and expensive. In some cases, misunderstandings will arise because of the failure of the parties to invest the time and resources required to obtain important information. When direct communication is cut off, it is easy to rely on unreliable third party sources--rumor, and media stories especially. These are notoriously error-prone, and can lead to serious misunderstandings. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
In crisis situations, normal communication channels are likely to be much less effective. They often operate too slowly to keep up with the rapid pace of events. They may also be unable to resist the increased hostility and distrust which crises are likely to create. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Poor communication can also arise when a party attempts to strengthen its position by deliberately providing opponents and other parties with misleading or deceptive information. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
In protracted conflicts, the people involved continually change. Often those playing key leadership roles give up their positions and other individuals take their place. In many cases these new participants have a very limited understanding of the conflict's history and the current situation. This lack of information can lead these people to take actions which they would not have taken, had they been better informed. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
People often view conflicts from very different perspectives depending upon such things as cultural background, economic position, and religious beliefs. In order for the parties to communicate effectively, they need to understand (though not necessarily agree with) the perspectives of other parties to a conflict. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Another aspect of cultural differences is that culture affects both the substance and style of communication. Culture influences how people express themselves, to whom they talk, and how. For example, while some people may feel comfortable talking openly about their feelings with anyone, others will only talk openly and honestly with very close friends, others may not talk that way at all. Such differences can cause people from different cultures to misinterpret both what is said, and what is left unsaid, leading to misunderstandings. ; . For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Often disputants do not have reliable channels through which they can communicate with opposing parties. This may be because they don't want to communicate, or it may be because they are afraid to or have no way to contact their opponents. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
It is common for the parties to break-off communication as a form of protest following some particularly disagreeable incident. However, the lack of communication can significantly increase the risk of future incidents. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Often communication between parties involved in difficult and emotional conflicts can result in painful confrontations. In order to avoid such confrontations in the future, parties often withdraw from future communication opportunities. . For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Successful communication requires that the parties listen actively and carefully--asking questions and confirming interpretations to make sure they understand what the other person is meaning. People seldom work this hard at listening, however. Often in conflictual situations, they hardly listen at all, but rather spend the time their opponent is talking planning their own response. This frequently leads to misunderstandings. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
When conflicts involve people who speak different languages (or even different dialects), it is very easy for misunderstandings to arise. Even when skilled translators are used, it is difficult for translators to transmit complex feelings and emotions as clearly as they are originally spoken. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Sometimes information which is critical to the accurate understanding of a situation is not available to all parties. This frequently occurs in business conflicts, when companies try to keep details about products and processes secret, and in international conflicts when governments keep secrets for "security" reasons. This can also happen in interpersonal conflicts when people simply choose to keep particular facts to themselves. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
When dialogue or negotiation occurs among a small group of people, they may develop communication skills and a level of interpersonal understanding that is not shared by others outside the immediate circle. If these small group processes are intended to have any wider effect, it is necessary to transfer the learning that takes place in the small group to the larger constituencies which the group represents. Often, however, communication between the small group members and their constituents is often not adequate to expand the transformation beyond the immediate circle of participants. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Even in ordinary circumstances, people often say things that are not interpreted in the way the statement was intended. When people are angry with and distrustful of each other, the likelihood of misinterpreting communication is greatly increased--to the point where it is almost inevitable. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Negative and inflammatory publicity is a problem in conflicts--before, during, and negotiations. Before negotiations, the media can intensify a controversy, making it harder to get people to work together or even talk. In the early stages of negotiation parties often advance tentative ideas which could easily backfire if publicized. The resulting outcry and complaints can easily undermine an otherwise promising negotiation effort. Even after negotiated solutions have been developed, negative publicity can rekindle conflicts, making implementation of agreements more difficult. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Motives can be misinterpreted as easily as statements can be misunderstood. When parties are in conflict, there is a tendency to assume the opponent's motives are malign, even when they are not. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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The believability of fact-finding efforts is the sharply reduced when the experts doing the fact-finding work are likely to benefit personally by providing misleading information. In these cases, opponents and the general public are likely to doubt the veracity of the expert's conclusions--even if the expert is acting reasonably. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Conflicts often involve different experts making contradictory statements about important facts. Because the general public lacks technical expertise, it has no way to determine who to believe. As a result, people tend to reject expert analysis and believe what they want to believe. In these cases, the potential benefits of objective fact finding are likely to be lost. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Fact-finding problems can also arise when parties attempt to strengthen their position by deliberately misleading others with expert analyses which "prove" that the facts are on their side. (This often occurs in conjunction with the conflict-of- interest problem.) : For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Fact-finding efforts often involve complex issues which are difficult for the general public to sensibly interpret. Bad decisions can result when the parties and key decision makers fail to understand what the facts really mean. . 6047l For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Fact-finding efforts are limited by the skills of the experts. In many cases, the best available technical analyses are unable to eliminate key uncertainties. When this is the case, it may be impossible for experts to answer some important questions, and decisions must be made in the absence of firm information. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Often the parties attempt to avoid uncertainty by conducting study after study, in an effort to resolve an issue once and for all. Where irreducible uncertainties are involved, this search for certainty leads to endless delays. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Technical disputes can become so complex that the parties have trouble implementing a process capable of addressing the essential issues. The result can be a confusing muddle in which the issues are never effectively addressed. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Trust in the fairness of a dispute- resolution or decision-making process can quickly be lost if interested parties believe that their concerns are being ignored, or they are being excluded from the process. 6188, 6813. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Often democratic decision making processes designed to resolve a short-term disputes can be deliberately delayed by parties wishing to avoid a potentially unfavorable decision. The resulting delays can allow opponents of change to win without ever having to demonstrate the superiority of their position. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
On the other hand, democratic decision making processes can be rushed by parties wishing to avoid addressing the hard issues. When the process is rushed, decisions are often made before facts are adequately considered or before all the parties have had an opportunity to present their case. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Problems often develop when parties (either disputants or intermediaries) do not have clear goals. This tends to make their actions less effective than they might otherwise be and can lead to misunderstandings on the part of their opponents as well. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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If the parties conclude that available opportunities for participation in dispute resolution processes are meaningless, then they are likely to withdraw their support for the overall process and pursue more confrontational strategies. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Many conflicts involve so many overlapping issues that it is difficult to develop a process which addresses all of the important issues and allows the parties to participate effectively. The result is often a process which is so confused that it cannot make sensible decisions. This confusion can also result in seemingly endless delays in the dispute resolution process. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
The parties generally enter into dispute-resolution processes with clear expectations about what will and will not occur. When the parties' expectations are not fulfilled, they are likely to feel cheated--even if the changes are reasonable. The result is a reduction in the sense of trust which is crucial to effective problem solving. Solution Link: For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Decision-making and dispute- resolution processes often favor small groups of individuals with an intense interest in the conflict over the much larger population of people with a more limited interest in the dispute. The result can be decisions which favor individual and small group interests over the collective interests of the larger society. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Especially troublesome are dictatorial processes in which an individual or small group is able to routinely make decisions which favor their interests over the larger interests of society. Often, this situation is perpetuated by the dictator's willingness to use violent force against opponents. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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In the early stages of negotiation the parties often advance tentative ideas which could easily be misinterpreted. This is especially true if the ideas are widely publicized in ways which do not convey the context in which the ideas were offered. The resulting outcry, complaints can easily [destroy] an otherwise promising negotiation effort. Confidentiality / Inaccessible Information. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
In an effort to build their power base, parties often seek alliances with as many other interest groups as possible. These groups agree to help each other as they pursue their separate objectives. In order to remain competitive, interest groups have to form as many alliances as possible. Over time, this process tends to divide communities into two large and opposing alliances in a process called polarization. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Escalation can be intensified when the parties use tactics which personally attack the integrity and character of their opponents. This can change the character of a conflict so that personal hatreds and vindictiveness, rather than the pursuit of just solutions, dominate the debate. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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The escalation of a conflict to the point of violent confrontation can change a conflict so that concern over substantive issues and questions of justice is replaced by fear, hatred, and a desire for self-defense and vengeance. These effects are compounded when the use of violence is seen as excessive, illegitimate, or unnecessary. . Click here for more information about the way in which violence transforms a conflict. Click here for information about strategies which reduce the risk of violence. Click here for information on strategies for recovering from violence once it occurs. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Often parties involved in serious conflicts are called upon to make enormous sacrifices including, in violent conflicts, the loss of human lives. Once such sacrifices have been made, it is extremely difficult for leaders to admit that they have made a mistake and the sacrifices were unnecessary. This reluctance to admit past errors often leads the parties to pursue destructive strategies long after their destructiveness and futility has become apparent. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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As conflicts escalate, public interest and willingness to take sides generally increases. This can lead to substantial increases in the level of support enjoyed by some or all of the parties. Knowing this, disputants often deliberately escalate conflicts in order to build support. While this approach can be effective, it usually generates support for the other side as well. The result is often an intensification of the conflict with little change in the relative power of the parties. Solution Link: Mobilization; Escalation Training. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
Most interest groups have supporters who take an extreme view of the conflict. These extremists tend to favor outrageous and often violent tactics. They are also likely to be very reluctant to accept any form of compromise. In their pursuit of complete victory, extremists often take aggressive actions which other members of the group oppose. Problems arise when these extremists become viewed as representing the views and tactics of the larger group. This tends to lead opponents to conclude that they must respond with extreme tactics of their own. The provocative actions of extremists can also threaten broadly supported efforts to de-escalate conflicts. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
In making public statements, disputants often try to encourage their supporters by trying to find the most clever way of insulting their opponents and proclaiming their own virtue. This may bring cheers from supporters, but these unnecessary insults can intensify an opponents' hostility and can thereby contribute to the escalation spiral. ; For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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In crisis situations, disputants are often forced to make important decisions very quickly with information which is usually incomplete and unreliable. Given such uncertainty, decision makers often feel that they must take a cautious, worst-case approach and assume that their opponents are acting in the most threatening way possible. This often leads the parties to take more forceful actions than necessary, which dramatically intensifies the conflict. For example, in cases where military forces are on a hair-trigger alert, parties are under intense pressure to respond instantly and forcefully for fear that the other party's quick action will allow them to seize the advantage. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
The escalation process is commonly accompanied by very strong emotions which make it difficult for the parties to rationally assess the situation and determine how best to advance their interests. Since emotions lie at the core of many difficult conflicts, they must be addressed and cannot be simply repressed.6186 For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Escalation can intensify conflicts to the point where the parties will use all available resources to protect their interests. Often, this leads to a standoff in which neither party has the power to win, and neither party is willing to back down or admit defeat. This can be extremely destructive to all sides, as they continue to pour resources and lives into the struggle, with little or no hope of victory. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Often, victorious parties will celebrate their victory by bragging about their success and further insulting the defeated party. The result is likely to further intensify the underlying conflict and increase the risk of destructive future of confrontations. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Often groups define their identity by their common opposition to some enemy or out-group. While this process can be very effective in strengthening the "in-group", it does so by significantly intensifying a conflict. Nevertheless, this process is often deliberately encouraged by leaders who use it to unify their supporters and overcome internal opposition. 6571; 7042. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Violent catastrophic confrontations seldom occur unless the contending parties have de- humanized one another. Once this de-humanization occurs, opponents are treated as if they have no legitimate rights and all manners of atrocities are considered justifiable. The Geneva conventions limit this effect somewhat by setting minimal standards for the treatment of combatants. However, recent wars have illustrated that there is no limit to what can and has been done to both combatants and civilians. TRUE? For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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The media (newspapers, radio, and television) make more money when the have a larger audience. Audiences can be expanded, it is commonly believed, by stressing extreme news and ideas, rather than common occurrences. For this reason, the media tends to report on the most outrageous occurrences and the most extreme statements, rather than conciliatory gestures or efforts to compromise or solve problems. Thus the media often contribute greatly to the escalation of conflicts. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
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Often disputants or third parties realize a conflict is getting out of hand, but they delay corrective efforts until the situation is really unmanageable. For more information about this problem "click" on the title.
Possible ways of treating this problem include the following. Click on each topic for more information.
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