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International Online Training Program On Intractable Conflict

Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, USA

 

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TREATING FORCE PROBLEMS


General Information about Treating Problems Associated with the Use of Force

Legitimatizing the Use of Force

In the development and implementation of force-based strategies, there are a number of steps which the parties can take to increase the legitimacy of their actions, and reduce the risk of backlash. Most of these involve limiting the extent and type of force, and by linking force to other power options, especially integrative and exchange (negotiation) options. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Step-by-Step Application of Force with Negotiation Loop-backs

Force and loopback processes can be employed in a step-by-step fashion in which a party begins with a modest demonstration of the force-based power and then attempts to negotiate to see if some type of acceptable agreement on the immediate dispute might be possible. If agreement is not possible, they can then step up the use of force and repeat the process. the bitter end; use of excessive force. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Forcing Power Shortcuts

Forcing power shortcuts are designed to provide the parties with accurate and low-cost forecasts of the likely outcome of pursuing forcing-power contests to their ultimate conclusion. By using shortcuts, however, the terrible costs of protracted power contests can be avoided. These forecasts can then be used as a basis for negotiation. Examples of such shortcuts include: public opinion polls (in place of elections); arbitration or mini-trails (in place of litigation); and relative military force assessments (in place of military confrontations). For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Use of Less Destructive Force Types

The legitimacy of using force is increased when the parties use the least destructive type of force which is also consistent with an effective defense of their interests. For example, an attempt to work within existing laws should precede efforts to change those laws by political or other means. Similarly, diplomatic solutions should be pursued before military solutions. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Option Inventory

This technique involves the systematic identification of the force-based options which various parties have available for advancing their interests. The advantages and disadvantages with each option are also inventoried. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Costing

Costing is a strategy in which the parties systematically evaluate potential benefits, as well as the costs and risks involved in each option they are considering. Even when costs and benefits are considered disputants often underestimate the costs and overestimate the benefits of using force. Problem Links: Neglecting the costs and risk of force; you are being threatened; you are a victim of force or violence; sacrifice trap; stalemate. Example Links: 1975, 5857, 6038, 7032. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Continuing but Non-Violent Struggle

Abandonment of violent confrontation does not necessarily means that the parties have to accept defeat. It may also result from recognition that there are non-violent means of continuing struggle are likely to be more effective. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Continuing but Civil Struggle

Abandonment of personal confrontation does not necessarily may strengthen rather than weaken a parties power. This is because civil means of struggle are often more effective than those based upon personal attacks. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Violent defense

Violence is usually considered legitimate if it is used in self defense, although it should not be considered the only or necessarily the best option available. The likely benefits, costs, and risks of using force should be compared with alternative nonviolent approaches to defense. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Collective Security

Collective security agreements call upon participating parties to jointly oppose any aggressive (or illegitimate) actions taken against any of the parties participating in the agreement. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Deterrence

Deterrence is a strategy for resisting the threatening actions of others through the making of counter threats. While the approach is often effective it can also be dangerous. It can result in an "arms race" effect in which the competing sides work to make ever more powerful threats. Deterrence can also break down forcing the parties to either admit that they were bluffing or carry out their threats. This can result in the kind of destructive confrontation which deterrence was intended to avoid. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Civilian Defense

Civilian defense strategies attempt to deter violent aggression by promising a nonviolent program of systematic non-cooperation with any conquering force. The goal is to prevent aggressors from benefiting from their actions. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Empowerment

Empowerment strategies are designed to help traditionally disempowered groups strengthen their base of forcing power so that they can participate fairly and effectively in dispute resolution processes. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Criminal Justice

In cases where conflicts are found to involve criminal behavior on the part of specific individuals, the criminal justice system with its police powers can be used against the guilty parties. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Voting/Elections

Often the parties will agree to the use of elections (often with judicial review) as the ultimate source of power for dispute resolution efforts. This requires the parties to forsake violence and promise to uphold the outcome of the election even when they are not victorious. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Stable Peace

Stable peace is a concept developed by Kenneth Boulding who said that stable peace is obtained when the parties completely abandon the use of violent measures for advancing their interests. Peace in this sense does not require that the underlying conflict be resolved; it only requires a recognition that the costs of violent strategies are likely to far exceed the benefits. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Developing New Conflict Skills

The skills people have limit how they approach a conflict. Often people are more skilled in force-based confrontation than they are in negotiation or integrative strategies. By taking the time to develop new negotiation and integrative skills, leaders and their constituents will be better able to engage in successful peacemaking and peacebuilding efforts. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Peacekeeping

Peacekeeping involves putting neutral intermediaries between fighting factions to physically keep them apart. This can cool down a conflict enough to allow for successful peace making (the development of a settlement agreement) and long-term peacebuilding (the re-establishment of normal relations).For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Peace Zones

Peace Zones are proposed international zones which could be administered by the United Nations for the benefit of all the people who live there and care about the region. The establishment of an international Peace Zone had been suggested for Jerusalem, for example, so that it could remain open to the three main religious groups which have roots there. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Amnesty / Forgiveness

One strategy for dealing with the war criminal.htm"> problem focuses upon the admission of guilt, the paying of reparations, the asking of forgiveness, and the granting of amnesty. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Strategic Retreat

Sometimes the best approach to a threat is to comply and build strength for a future confrontation. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Counterthreat

Sometimes these best response to a threat is to threaten back. This usually escalates the conflict, but if the first disputant is bluffing, a counterthreat may encourage them to take back their threat and utilize a more conciliatory strategy instead. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Defiance

Another approach to a threat is to refuse to do what is demanded, but without issuing a threat in return. Essentially, defiance means ignoring the threat or "just saying no." This doesn't escalate a conflict as much as a counterthreat does, though it does risk that the threat will be carried out. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

External intervention

External intervention is the involvement of an external power (another country, for example) in an internal struggle or conflict. This intervention can be military or nonmilitary. Among the non-military options are positive or negative sanctions (rewards and punishments for certain behaviors), mediation, and peacekeeping. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Use of the integrative system to respond to and end force

Although most people tend to respond to force with counterforce, it is often equally or more effective to use an integrative strategy to respond to the threat or use of force. This makes the disputant using the force to look bad in the eyes of outsiders (sometimes among their own people as well) and makes it hard to sustain the use of force when the opponent is responding with integrative strategies. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Face-saving surrender

Losing parties are much more likely to agree to end a struggle if they are given a way out of the situation that is not terribly embarrassing, and does not force them to admit they lost. If there is some way to frame the outcome of the dispute so all sides can claim at least some success, it will make it much easier for the losing side to back down. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Re-integration of Losers

It also is important that losing parties be reintegrated into the society. People do not just go away, but they must continue to live somewhere most often where they have been living before. For this reason, disputes must end with a plan that specifies how all the parties will live together in the future. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Criminal Prosecution

Two approaches are available for dealing with war crimes and other excessive violence related to protracted conflicts. One is acknowledgment, apology, and amnesty; the other is criminal prosecution. Both have costs and benefits. The benefits of criminal prosecution is that it makes people responsible for what they did; it brings some sense of justice to a society; and it gives a sense of finality, of ending to a violent confrontation. The costs of this approach are substantial, however, both practical and moral, and its pursuit may inhibit the ability of the parties to end the struggle. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

 


TREATING INTEGRATIVE PROBLEMS


General Information about Treating Problems Associated with the Use of Integrative Power

Identify Integrative Options

Often integrative options are not considered because they are thought to be unavailable or ineffective. Yet a better understanding of the power of integrative options and the number of options available will often change the tactical and strategic decisions that disputants make. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Opening Communication Channels

The first step toward effective persuasion is opening the communication channels through which persuasion CAN take place. Persuasion is impossible if people are not listening. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Crafting Persuasive Arguments

Successful persuasion requires showing opponents how changing their position advances the common interest that all parties have in a strong integrative system. The best persuasive arguments are built around and a society which defends the legitimate interests of all citizens. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Amnesty/Forgiveness

In many serious conflicts, one or more parties are likely to have committed horrible crimes or atrocities. In other, less serious, cases the parties are likely to have done things which opponents find extremely hurtful. In these cases an integrative approach, which focuses upon the acknowledgment of past guilt, the payment of appropriate compensation, and the granting of forgiveness, can do much to help the parties strengthen the integrative system. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Formalized Apology and Forgiveness

Formalized structures to elicit apologies and forgiveness, such as the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission, can help communities torn apart by violent confrontations recover from the crimes and atrocities which occurred. These commissions can provide a formal mechanism to publicly account for what happened, apologize and forgive. This can be very helpful in the overall peacebuilding process, allowing reconciliation between previously warring groups.For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Confronting Hypocrisy

In cases where people act in violation of their cultural values and beliefs direct confrontation of their hypocrisy can serve as a basis for persuasive. The key is to construct a situation in which is it impossible for the parties to ignore the hypocrisy of their own actions. Such actions might, for example, involve carefully-structured public demonstrations such as those pioneered by King and Gandhi. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Commonality to Balance Diversity

Much progress has been made in recognizing and honoring the widely differing belief systems of increasingly diverse society's. In celebrating this diversity, however, people often fail to recognize the importance of areas of commonality, especially cross-cultural principles of fairness which are capable of binding a diverse society together. Developing such integrative principles of fairness principles can provide a basis for transforming many cross-cultural conflicts. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Coexistence and Tolerance

The principles of coexistence and tolerance can often be used as a basis for building mutually acceptable relationships between highly diverse communities within a larger society. As such, these principles can contribute significantly to the strengthening of the integrative system. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Humanization

This is the reversal of dehumanization.  With humanization, people try to counter enemy images and negative stereotypes, emphasizing the humanity of all people and the importance of treating others fairly based on their common humanity. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Trust Building

In prolonged and escalated conflicts, distrust is inevitable, and it significantly hampers the ability of the parties to negotiate even a partial solution to their problems. A variety of trust-building measures are available to slowly build up trust so that more cooperative problem solving approaches can take place. In addition, implementation plans can be develop that largely eliminate the need for trust, as they are self-enforcing. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Face Saving

Face saving is a strategy for limiting the sacrifice trap by making it easier for a party to change their behavior without overtly admitting that they made a mistake in the past. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Shared Meta-values / Commonality / Humanism

Humanism is the belief in the sanctity of human life and the importance of providing fundamental human rights. Humanism provides a common bond of tolerance which is capable of holding diverse communities together, in spite of other deep moral or political differences. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Reconciliation

Reconciliation strategies are designed to resolve the underlying conflict rather than settle the immediate dispute episode. They require the parties to reconcile their underlying differences and transform their relationship to that of "normalcy". This is a long, slow process involving trust-building, apology, forgiveness, and a variety of other peace-building measures. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Moral High Ground

A party's integrative power can often be strengthened by consistently adhering to high moral principles and refusing to employ tempting, but immoral or escalating tactics such as personal attacks, deceit, or gloating. By "playing fairly," parties can do much to enhance their own legitimacy and hence their ability to persuade their more reasonable opponents. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Negotiate with Legitimate Representatives

Negotiation with illegitimate representatives seldom works. Parties involved in negotiation need to make sure that the people they are negotiating with really do represent the constituency they purport to represent. If they do not, it is essential to find out who does legitimately represent that group and negotiate with them. If a group has no legitimate leader, there is no point in negotiating until one can be established. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Re-establish Empower Traditional or New Conflict-management Institutions

This involves re-establishing or empowering institutions such as the family, the clan, the church, or the community to provide conflict management assistance. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Joint projects

One technique for peacebuilding and reconciliation is to engage in joint projects with people on the other side of a conflict. If opponents can be brought together in some cooperative endeavor, they tend to break down their negative stereotypes, begin to depend on each other, and start building normal, positive relationships which can later be extended to issues in conflict. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Peacebuilding - official efforts of UN and regional organizations

Peacebuilding is the process of rebuilding normal relations between people who have been at war with each other, either literally or figuratively. It involves rebuilding trust, re-establishing cooperative relationships, apologizing for past violent deeds and forgiving those deeds so that the former enemies can become friends and neighbors who can successfully live and work together in the future. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

NGO peacebuilding

Nongovernmental organizations can play a major intermediary role encouraging peacebuilding in war-torn societies. Unlike peacemaking (which is attaining a short-term settlement) or peacekeeping (which just keeps the parties apart), peacebuilding works to re-establish trust and a sense of community and normalcy between previously warring groups. : For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

NGO humanitarian aid

In addition to offering peacebuilding activities, NGOs often provide humanitarian aid. While this is generally not considered a form of conflict management, it does provide fundamental human needs and empowers people enough so that they can begin to undertake a peace-building process. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Citizen diplomacy

In addition to traditional diplomacy of diplomats, private citizens can engage in discussions about their conflict situations. Such discussions can focus on improving interpersonal understanding and trust between groups, or they can go so far as to explore options for dispute settlement. Often citizens can say things and suggest ideas that formal diplomats cannot, which can lead to the development of innovative approaches to intractable problems. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Church involvement

Religion is a very strong integrative factor for most people, although it can be divisive as well when different religious groups oppose each other. A few religions--the Quakers and the Menonites, for example, have a strong tradition of peacebuilding around the globe. Most other religions, however, value human life and peace in some way as well. If these teachings can be emphasized, churches can go a long way toward bringing people together. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Finding common values

Most intractable conflicts involve fundamental value disagreements of some kind. However, there are usually additional values that both sides have in common--for instance the value of peace, or the value of human life. Sometimes a third party can help disputants identify such a common value and reframe their disagreement in a way that can help both groups work together to attain this value, rather than focusing on the areas of disagreement. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Power sharing strategies

Many intractable disputes involve what we call "domination conflicts." In this situation, one group dominates another, which does not want to be subordinate to the first group. Conflict is likely to continue as long as either group pursues domination. However, if the groups can agree on some principles of power sharing, domination conflicts can be mitigated and eventually resolved. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Dialogue

Dialogue is a process in which parties engage in deep and meaningful conversations with their opponents, not for the purpose of resolving a dispute (as is usually true with negotiation or mediation), but rather for the purpose of developing a better understanding of the people "on the other side." Through dialogue, disputants break down negative stereotypes, focus on deep-rooted feelings, values, and needs, and come to understand the complexity of the conflict and the issues on all sides. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Develop interdependence

Groups which are interdependent are less able to severe ties in a severe conflict. Thus the development of interdependence is an escalation- avoidance strategy. It is also an approach to de-escalate a conflict, as interdependence encourages cooperation, which then encourages peacebuilding efforts. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Establish Personal Relationships

Establishing personal relationships with people on the other side can go a long way toward breaking down inaccurate and hostile stereotypes and increasing interpersonal and intergroup understanding. While this alone does not bring about conflict resolution, it can transform the character of the conflict, making it more constructive For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Story Telling

Story telling can be used to advantage to express the intensity of ideas and feelings and to establish a bond and level of understanding between disputants that is hard to attain otherwise. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Disarming Moves

Disarming moves are surprising actions which one side can take to prove that they are more reasonable than they are viewed to be by their opponents. Such moves can be conciliatory offers or personal gestures of friendship that break down negative feelings or stereotypes. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Prejudice Reduction Programs

A variety of approaches can be utilized to reduce prejudice, most involving improved communication between people and groups, and more interpersonal contact and positive interactions. Often this is done in a workshop setting; other times in the course of other peacebuilding programs. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Compensation/Restitution

One way to encourage forgiveness and reconciliation is to offer compensation or restitution for damage or violence done in the past. For more information about this approach "click" on the title.

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Establishment of Civil Society

For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

 

TREATING EXCHANGE PROBLEMS


General Information about Treating Exchange Problems

Official (Track 1) diplomacy

Official diplomacy is one of the most obvious and common international conflict management and conflict resolution processes. While official diplomacy faces many obstacles in the case of intractable conflict, it is still essential. However, diplomats should try to move away from positional bargaining as much as possible, and adopt more integrative approaches to international problem solving. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Identifying Ripe Times for Negotiation

The possibility of successfully negotiating an agreement can be greatly increased when the parties understand what how to determine when the time is "ripe" for negotiated settlement and how to encourage the "ripening" process. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Identifying and Pursuing Negotiable Sub-Issues

One key to effective negotiation is for the parties to separately consider the various sub-issues which characterize their relationship. This allows them to undertake mutually beneficial agreements on some issues, even while they struggle with the serious unresolved conflicts in other areas. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Negotiation Loopbacks

Often disputing parties will attempt negotiations to resolve a conflict, but one (or more) parties will drop out of the negotiations because they think they can get a better outcome using another approach (which usually involves some form of force). However, the force-based strategy does not need to be pursued to the "bitter-end." Rather, once the relative power of the parties is clear, the disputants can return to negotiation to peacefully implement an agreement that reflects that true power relationships of the parties at that time. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Principled Negotiation

Principled negotiation, described by Fisher and Ury in is a four-step negotiation strategy based on interests. In cases where there are reasonable prospects for an agreement which benefits all parties, and the parties have a relationship which allows them to explore such opportunities, principled negotiation can be an extremely effective strategy. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Third Party Intervention

In cases where the parties are unable to negotiate, or even communicate effectively with one another, a trusted intermediary can play an important role in helping the parties communicate more effectively. Third parties can also provide mediation or arbitration (see below). Even when conflicts are being confronted, not resolved, third parties can help both parties confront the issues more effectively than they could do alone. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Mediation

Mediation is a form of third party intervention in which the mediator helps the parties negotiate an agreement which they then have the option of accepting or rejecting. In some cases, mediators play a problem solving role focused upon negotiating an agreement to the immediate dispute. In other cases mediation focuses upon transformative objectives which are focused more upon improving the underlying relationship between the parties than upon settling the specific dispute. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Arbitration

Arbitration is a form of third party intervention in which the parties voluntarily submit their dispute to trusted outsider who hears all sides of the story and then makes a decision which the parties have promised to accept. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Consensus Building

Consensus building is essentially multi-party mediation. While mediation typically involves two disputants and a mediator, consensus building is an extension of the same principles to disputes which involve ten, twenty, or even fifty or one hundred parties. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Common Ground Projects

Common ground projects do not attempt to resolve a conflict's core issues. Instead they focus upon identifying points of common ground or areas in which the parties can agree. This can then provide a basis for transforming relationships, which will eventually allow the parties to more constructively address the more difficult core issues in dispute. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Deadlines and Compliance Guarantees

The inclusion of deadlines (and penalties for a failure to meet these deadlines) can help assure parties that the provisions of an agreement will be carried out. This can reduce the risk that a lack of trust between the parties will block agreement that would otherwise benefit all the parties. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Brainstorming

Brainstorming is a process in which the parties are asked to creatively generate as many options for approaching a problem as they can. People are encouraged to think creatively and build off each others' ideas--without critically examining any of the ideas until later. The goal is to come up with new ways of approaching problems than those which had been identified before For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Prenegotiation

Often it is necessary to negotiate about the structure or process of the negotiation before the "real" negotiations take place.  In prenegotiation, disputants can decide who is going to be at the table, what the agenda is going to be, how the negotiations will be structured, what the ground rules will be, etc.  This can help the negotiations get started more effectively than if all of these matters are also in dispute when negotiations begin.  For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

UN Good Offices

For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Coaching

Coaching provides an opportunity for the parties to receive suggestions on how to more effectively participate in various types of negotiation processes. This is especially useful for parties that may be at a disadvantage because they are unaccustomed to negotiation. It is also useful in cross-cultural situations when people may not understand the impact of cultural differences on effective communication or problem solving. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Peacemaking

Peacemaking is essentially negotiation of an agreement formally ending a particular dispute. This is then followed by peacebuilding which implements the agreement and brings the parties back together in some sort of "normal" relationship. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Getting People to the Table

Negotiation cannot succeed unless the right people are at the negotiating table. A number of strategies are available to 1) determine who should be at the table and to 2) induce them to come. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Constituent Involvement Strategies

As a negotiation proceeds, constituent involvement strategies help negotiators involve their constituents in the process. This is critical, since constituents are less likely to accept an agreement that is obtained if they have not be involved in the process enough to understand why the agreement was designed as it was (especially why certain compromises were made). For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Soft Bargaining

Soft bargaining is a negotiation strategy in which primary emphasis is on the preservation of friendly relationships with the other parties. While this approach reduces the level of conflict, it also increases the risk that one party will be exploited by others who use hard bargaining techniques. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Hard Bargaining

Hard bargaining strategies emphasize results over relationships. Hard bargainers will insist that their demands be completely agreed to and accepted before any agreement is possible. While this approach avoids the need to make concessions, it also reduces the likelihood of successfully negotiating an agreement, and usually harms the relationship with the other party as well. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Provide forum

If no negotiating forum is available, one must be established While parties can do this themselves, it is often more easily accomplished with the assistance of a third party mediator or facilitator. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Negotiation Skill Development

Sometimes one or more parties is not very skilled in negotiation, and they can get seriously overpowered by parties that are experienced and skilled.  For this reason, training in negotiation skills can be very helpful to equalizing the power differences and therefore increasing the likelihood of a fair outcome from a negotiation process.

For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Utilize a Skilled, Credible Third Party

Sometimes a third party is not credible or reliable. They may have a conflict-of-interest and work for a solution that favors themselves and/or one side of the conflict more than the other, or they may not have the skills necessary to intervene successfully. By providing a third party who is skilled and credible, these problems can be surmounted, and often significant progress can be made where none was made before. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Self-Enforcing Agreements

When the parties' distrust each other's willingness to keep commitments, it is possible to design a settlement that has agreements that are dependent upon the other parties's performance. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Distributive Bargaining

Distributive bargaining is an alternative to principled negotiation in which the parties assume that the conflict is structured in a win-lose way and the best strategy is to bargain over who is going to get how much. Distributive bargaining tends to be much more competitive and adversarial than principled negotiation, as each party tries to do better than the other in the negotiation.

For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

 


GENERAL TREATMENT STRATEGIES


General Information about Overall Strategies which Treat Multiple Problem Areas

Incrementalism

When a conflict is too complex or deep-rooted to be resolved in its entirety, there are usually incremental steps that can be taken to make the situation better. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Empowerment

Negotiation often does not work well when the parties negotiating have extremely unequal amounts of power. Often third parties will undertake empowerment of the lower power group or groups in order to alleviate this situation. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Insider-partial mediation

Although the North American model of mediation relies on an outsider, impartial mediator, in other societies, people who are connected to the conflict, and even partial to one side, are often more effective mediators, as they are trusted by the people to be fair and to be committed to fair agreement which they will help implement and enforce. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information. Combination Strategies

Identify Sources of Power/Power Strategy Mix

Usually, using several power strategies in combination is more effective than using just one approach alone. Careful framing; the control of overlay problems; and the use of forcing, integrative, and trading power are much more effective when used in combination than when used separately. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Empowerment

People or groups involved in intractable conflicts are almost always better off if they carefully assess their sources of power and build up those sources of power as much as possible before confronting their opponents. (Keep in mind that "power" is being used here in a broad sense, to include exchange and integrative strategies as well as force). Empowerment also involves developing a strategy for using power wisely employing a mix of constructive confrontation techniques which are most likely to produce benefits with the lowest costs. Empowerment is especially important to groups which start out in a low-power position, which puts them at a disadvantage in almost all confrontational situations. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Advocacy advisors

While strategic planning can be done by disputing parties on their own, sometimes it is useful to obtain outside advice from an outside consultant, who can provide insight into different confrontation options. Advocacy advisors intervene in a conflict on behalf of one of the parties and not as a neutral intermediary. Their goal is to apply their knowledge of conflict processes to the party's effort to advance their own interests. Differing types of advocacy advisors specialize in different approaches to conflict. For example, lawyers specialize in litigation-based strategies, political advisors specialize in elections, lobbyist specialize in influencing the legislative process, labor organizers specialize in strikes and other job actions, community organizers specialize in non-violent direct action while religious leaders specialize in moral arguments and military advisors specialized in armed conflict. There can also be general advocacy advisors who show the parties how all of these strategies might be used in combination. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Analytical Problem Solving

Analytical problem solving is an approach to difficult conflicts developed by John Burton, Herbert Kelman, and others which focuses upon systematically analyzing a conflict to determine the degree to which fundamental human needs of the parties are being met. In cases where there are significant unmet needs, analytical problem solving focuses upon meeting these needs as a way of resolving the conflict. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Conflict Transformation

Many scholars and practitioners are beginning to focus more on the goal of transforming conflicts, rather than resolving them. Transformation refers to a change in the nature of the relationship between the disputing parties, not just a settlement of interest-based differences. The ultimate goal of conflict transformation is reconciliation a return to normal relations between disputing groups where each side accepts the legitimacy of the other's identity and aspirations, apologizes for and forgives the other for, past aggressive or violent acts. For more information about this approach "click" on the title 

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Transformative Mediation

Transformative mediation, a concept developed by Baruch Bush and Joe Folger in the , focuses on helping parties to transform their underlying relationship through empowerment and recognition. It is different from the more common problem-solving approach to mediation which emphasizes short term dispute settlement more than long-term relationships. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Dispute Systems Design

Dispute systems design is a concept first presented in by William Ury , Jeanne Brett, and Stephen Goldberg. Dispute handling systems are designed for organizations and communities that have to deal with a continuing series of disputes over similar issues. The goal of dispute system design is to develop and implement a system which directs each dispute to the appropriate dispute handling process. While interest-based processes are appropriate in most cases, Ury, Brett, and Goldberg recognized that there are also disputes which must be resolved on the basis of rights, as well as those which are resolved by determining who is more powerful. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Reality Testing

In deciding which conflict management strategy is most promising, parties must make assumptions about their own power, their opponent's power, and the likely outcomes of different options. It is easy to make inaccurate assessments of any of these factors, however. Often an outside party can help review the accuracy of these assumptions and help you revise them appropriate when they are invalid. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Preventive Diplomacy/conflict prevention

Preventative diplomacy or conflict prevention analyzes current problems and trends to identify situations which seem likely to escalate if not effectively managed. Steps can then be taken to remedy the situation before the conflict escalates so much that it becomes difficult to deal with. If successful this approach can eliminate the need for dispute resolution activities by avoiding the conflict in the first place. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Communication Improvement

Most resolution resistant conflicts suffer from poor communication between the disputing parties. Many techniques are available to improve communication. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Constructive Confrontation

Constructive confrontation is a strategy developed by Guy Burgess and Heidi Burgess which focuses upon helping the parties develop more constructive strategies for pursuing inevitable confrontations. It is an incremental approach which involves diagnosing particular conflict problems, and then designing remedies for those problems so that the resulting conflict is more constructive. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Option Expansion

Decisions can be no better than the best option being considered. When two or three win-lose outcomes are the only possibilities being discussed, decision makers have little choice but to make a win-lose decision, or to arbitrarily "cut the difference in half" which may make little sense either. Expanding the number of options being considered, and especially coming up with creative approaches to developing win-win solutions can often yield better decisions. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Training

Conflict management training can also serve as an intervention strategy. By helping people involved in conflicts better understand what is going on and what options they have for dealing with their problems in constructive ways, it is possible to provide lasting assistance which will have impact far beyond any outside intervention. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Stable Peace

Kenneth Boulding introduced the concept of "stable peace" which is the situation when two parties do not even consider war to be an option, no matter what conflict occurs between them. Examples would be the relationship between the United States and Canada, or the countries of Western Europe. Boulding foresaw the region of stable peace to be expanding, predicting that it would eventually cover much of the globe. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Peace Zones

Several scholars and diplomats have suggested the formation of "peace zones" administered by the United Nations, which would have sovereignty over certain highly contested geographical areas such as Jerusalem or Kurdistan*?*For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Coercive Diplomacy

  For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

Goal Clarification

It is very difficult to succeed in a conflict if one is not clear from the outset about one's goals. One of the earliest steps in constructive confrontation is therefore the clarification of one's goals to determine exactly what the problem is and what solution is sought. For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

 

Autonomy Agreements

Many of the intractable conflicts around the world today involve minority groups which are seeking some form of autonomy from their current state government.  A variety of autonomy agreements can be drafted which do not give these groups complete sovereignty, but do give them considerable autonomy to govern their own affairs.  For more information about this approach "click" on the title

Other problems which can be treated with this approach the following. Click on each problem for more information.

 

 

 


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